The Edo Period in Japanese culture was from 1615 to 1868. It got it’s name from modern day Tokyo that used to be named Edo. The period flourished after the country was finally unified after the Tokugawa family, who created a strict social system that helped bring peace among the country after several years of civil unrest. The Tokugawa family were shoguns that “ran a strictly feudalistic military government based in Edo” (V&A, 2019). After the country stabilized, there was a lot of economic growth that lower-class citizens and higher-class citizens alike were able to profit from. This included a new appreciation for art as they had better access to education. This period was mainly focused on the simpler aspects of life, which showed in the art that was most popular. Images of daily life, landscapes, or viewpoints became common as they settled into this period of piece.

The piece called Red and White Plum Blossoms by Ogata Kōrin in 1714 was painted with ink on a pair of folding screens. Although it’s not known where it was created, it currently resides in an art museum in Atami, Japan. It’s a peaceful scene with a flowing river and colorful trees in the background. This piece is an excellent representation of the peace that artists were trying to encapsulate during this time period, because the artist was able to incorporate soft movement and tones that make the viewer feel at ease. According to an article by Khan Academy, the “subtle grid of gold leaf, denies any sense of place or time and imbues everything with an ethereal glow” (Sigur, 2016). By being able to create a sense of timelessness, the viewer has the option to leave their everyday life. Furthermore, his use of space by making the trees and rive feel as if they are really close to the viewer rather than far away, the viewer feels as if they’re able to step into the piece. Through a “combination of pure design and intimate naturalism, Kôrin envelops us in the pulsing vitality of early spring” (Sigur, 2016), which brings the sense of peace that the Japanese were striving for after so much tension. I really enjoy this painting for that reason, because you can feel the sense of tranquility as you view it. I also appreciate the color choices and how they’re meaningful without being overpowering.

Under the Wave off Kanagawa by Katsushika Hokusai is one of the most famous paintings of all time. Even during the time period it was created, it was copied and mass distributed (although it was considered illegal in Japanese trade). This piece was created on a woodblock with ink, paper, and many colors. It was part of a series called Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. According to an article by Khan Academy, it’s unclear why the artist had such a personal fascination with Mount Fuji, but it’s also important to note that there was a huge increase in tourism to the mountain, which also increased the demand for images of Mount Fuji. This piece is mainly dominated by the wave, which is tossing around several boats, but it encircles the mountain in the foreground. By doing this, the artist draws the viewer’s eyes to the mountain. Furthermore, his ability to manipulate the space in the painting by layering the subjects to appear further in the distance is something that he incorporates into many of his pieces. I appreciate all the thought that went into this piece, because the several layers that the artist puts into the painting must be very difficult to calculate. However, it’s executed perfectly and the colors are very complementing of each other.

This piece is called Tea bowl with dragon roundels by Nonomura Ninsei. Tea bowls originated from the monks that used to keep bowls of tea by them while they prayed to help keep themselves awake. Eventually, it became integrated into Japanese culture. By making this piece of pottery, the artist is bringing back traditional items as well as trying to individualize his pottery. According to Khan Academy, “Ninsei was the first Japanese potter to apply his own seal to his work, making a statement that pottery should be valued as an individualized art form on par with painting” (Murasaki, 2016). What’s most interesting about this piece is the dragon that has been painted. In the Japanese culture, “the dragon represents the most powerful of all supernatural animals”(Murasaki, 2016) and is “the ruler of rain and wind and the producer of water sources”(Murasaki, 2016), making it an appropriate symbol for a traditional tea bowl. I enjoy this piece, because of the historical context behind it. I also love how in Japanese culture the dragon has a different meaning than in Western culture, because honestly it seems more appropriate to associate dragons with powerful beings.

In conclusion, the Edo period was known for peace after many years of civil unrest, and while the feudalistic system wasn’t necessarily the best for all social classes, it did bring about a new found appreciation for the simpler art forms, as well as boost the economy.

Sources:

Harris, Leila. “Hokusai, Under the Wave off Kanagawa (The Great Wave).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2014, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/art-japan/edo-period/a/hokusai-under-the-wave-off-kanagawa-the-great-wave.

Murasaki, Shikibu. “Tea Bowl with Dragon Roundels.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2016, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/art-japan/edo-period/a/tea-bowl-with-dragon-roundels.

Museum, Albert. “Historical Background: The Edo Period.” The Edo Period in Japanese History, Victoria and Albert Museum, U.K., London. 8 Feb. 2013, www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the-edo-period-in-japanese-history/.

Sigur, Hannah. “Ogata Kōrin, Red and White Plum Blossoms.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2016, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/art-japan/edo-period/a/ogata-krin-red-and-white-plum-blossoms.

Post-World War II was a difficult time for many non-whites in America, specifically for African Americans as new laws were put into place to separate them from the individuals that deemed themselves as superior simply because of their skin color. Even though white Americans were willing to let African Americans fight for their country throughout WWII, it didn’t mean that they were allowed to integrate into a multi-cultural society within the United States. It led to African Americans being denied adequate healthcare, education, and the freedom that every white American was given, making all African Americans feel hurt, confused, and like society was against them. This is abundantly clear in the artwork that was produced leading up to the Civil Rights Movement, throughout the Civil Rights Movement, and following the Civil Rights Movement as many individuals used artwork to express their feelings and opinions surrounding African Americans position in society.

This painting was part of a series called The Migration of a Negro by Jacob Lawrence in 1941, which depicted the large amount of African Americans that fled to the Northern United States in order to gain access to better education and to escape the forced labor laws of the South. Jacob Lawrence painted this series while in New York City, but since he didn’t have access to many public areas because of the color of his skin, he had to work in small quarters and use resources like the library or museum for information on this subject. This specific panel is called In the North the Negro had better educational facilities, which shows the life that these families are striving for. Their bright colored dresses suggest that their standard of life and education is much better than that of the South, where children weren’t subjected to child labor, as shown in one of the other panels in this series. The children show eagerness to learn by there outstretched arms, like “the young students are striving towards attainment and independence in a rhythmic shift to the right” (Cohen, 2015). Although I find this piece simple, I find it a perfect representation of what African Americans were striving for when the tensions began stirring before the Civil Rights Movement began. They simply wanted a better education so they could build a better life for themselves.

This piece called Birmingham by Jack Whitten was made in New York City in 1964, just a year after African American protestors were attacked by police in Birmingham, Alabama. This topic was close to the artist, because he was from Alabama and had moved to New York to find an integrated lifestyle that wasn’t centered around violence. Whitten created this by putting painted aluminum foil on top of plywood that had a picture of a police dog attacking one of the protestors in Birmingham. The picture of the police is covered with a nylon stocking, so it’s slightly covered. The stocking is “referencing W.E.B. Du Bois’ notion that African Americans are born with a veil that creates a double-consciousness—a “sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of the world that looks on in amused contempt and pity”” (Rabinovitch, 2014). This piece represents an open wound, which could symbolize many different aspects of the Civil Rights Movement. I believe that the foil represents the dark attitude that many white Americans used to justify the actions, such as attacking protestors, to cover up the inhuman treatment of African Americans. The “wound” is simply the artist trying to expose the truth that’s being covered up. Although I don’t find this piece aesthetically appealing nor would I understand the meaning without research, I do find it brilliantly creative with a powerful message.

The Door by David Hammons was made while he was studying art in L.A., California where he worked alongside another activist. It was in L.A. that Hammons found his unusual style of artwork where he would use his own body as the prints for his work. It resulted in incredible detail that he used to create messages on behalf of the African American community, since he was African American himself. This specific piece was used as “a literalization of the barriers that African Americans faced in entering higher-education institutions” (Rabinovitch, 2014). Even though it had been declared unconstitutional to keep schools segregated 15 years prior, African Americans still faced prejudice when trying to access the same education as white Americans. This piece seems to represent the desperation that these individuals felt, shown in the way that the body print on the door is trying to force themselves in, only to be blocked by the invisible barrier of racism. The lines in the hand and inclusion of the nose and ears make it more effective in spreading this message than a simple outline of a body, because it shows that this is a real person. Personally, I find this piece extremely unique in how he created it and the message was clear without having to do further research, which is why I enjoyed it so much.

The time surrounding the Civil Rights Movement gave several individuals inspiration to create groups artists or series of artwork to express the emotions that African Americans were feeling. We’re able to see the progression from just wanting to be treated as a normal individual as pictured in Hammond’s The Door to wanting to express themselves as a different type of individual once they were given the opportunity. These emotions gave way to colorful artwork with incredibly deep meanings.

Sources:

Campbell, Adrianna. “Birmingham.” Haus Der Kunst, 2019, postwar.hausderkunst.de/en/artworks-artists/artworks/birmingham.

Cohen, Brian D. “Jacob Lawrence Migration Series at MOMA.” HuffPost, HuffPost, 7 Dec. 2017, www.huffpost.com/entry/post_b_8018432.

Ellsworth, Kirstin. “Africobra and the Negotiation of Visual Afrocentrisms.” Civilisations, no. 58-1, 2009, pp. 21–38., journals.openedition.org/civilisations/1890?file=1.

Hochberger, Colleen. “5 Empowering Artworks (and Exhibitions) Made During the Civil Rights Movement.” Artspace, 13 Feb. 2018, www.artspace.com/magazine/interviews_features/in_brief/5-empowering-artworks-and-exhibitions-made-during-the-civil-rights-movement-55256.

Rabinovitch, Addy. “From the Archives – Witness: Art and Civil Rights in the Sixties at the Brooklyn Museum.” DAILY SERVING, 16 Dec. 2014, www.dailyserving.com/2014/12/from-the-archives-witness-art-and-civil-rights-in-the-sixties-at-the-brooklyn-museum/.

SAAM. “Oh Freedom! Barbara Jones–Hogu.” Smithsonian American Art Museum, 2019, americanart.si.edu/education/oh-freedom/barbara-jones-hogu.

World War I had a major effect on society, because nothing as brutal had ever been seen before. Empires that had survived for centuries had fallen, new weaponry that wiped out troops by the dozen, and the millions of families that were left to deal with the aftermath. Therefore, it’s not surprising that the war also caused a spark for new styles of art to be introduced and commissioned, even by the government. Through the art surrounding World War I, we’re able to see the progression from the tension that caused the war, the brutality that happened during the war, and the aftermath.

Although World War I technically started with the death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, there was a lot of tension between different countries and between the government and their citizens. The painting shown above is a great example of the kind of chaos that surrounded this tension. The painting Funeral of the Anarchist Galli was painted by Carlo Carrá in 1910 in Milan, Italy. It depicts the funeral of Angelo Galli, an anarchist that had been stabbed to death during the workers strike just three days before. The funeral was attended by many anarchists “which erupted into violence between anarchists and the police” (Khan Academy, 2015). The artist was close with this movement, because he was involved with the anarchists and supported their movements. He was present at the funeral, which is why the figures feel so emotional – because the artist was portraying his own emotions. In the painting, the red coffin of Angelo Galli is the center piece, above the heads of the other anarchists. The seemingly random lines represents the motion of the people, showing how chaotic the event really was because of the tension between the police and the citizens. This tension wasn’t uncommon during World War I. Furthermore, the contrast of the brightly colored coffin and sun against the dark-colored bodies could symbolize how the “darker” aspects of war (violence, death, etc.) comes from the individuals still fighting, not the ones already lost. Perhaps Carrá’s painting was a call-to-action to diffuse the tensions between countries before the war erupted. Personally, I wouldn’t appreciate this piece of art nearly as much as I do with the knowledge of the back story. I love the aesthetic appeal, because the lines move together in an almost harmonious way.

Gassed by John Singer Sargent was painted in 1819 in London, England. This painting does a wonderful job of capturing the pain that soldiers experienced during the war and how that pain brought the men closer together. Shown in the painting is a line of soldiers being led by a medical orderly. At their feet are dozens more men that are lying down, obviously in pain, which is shown by the two men at the lower left grasping their heads in pain and the man on the lower right that is desperately drinking water. “The scene is the aftermath of a mustard gas attack on the Western Front in August 1918 as witnessed by the artist“ (IWM, 2019), which is why all the men have their eyes bandaged. “Their eyes are bandaged as a result of exposure to gas” (IWM, 2019). The amount of people that were injured is shown by how all the color from the uniforms seem to merge together, making an endless sea of bodies. The bond between the men is also shown by the line the artist created – all the men are connected by their arms, showing how they rely on each other in difficult situations. This piece is so powerful because it shows how the new technology in warfare was able to injure dozens of men with one weapon, but they still are able to form this unique bond. It’s because of the bond between the men pictured that I love this painting. The images are realistic, but carry deep emotion, making it a very effective piece.

The War Cripples: With Self-Portrait was painted by Otto Dix in Berlin, Germany in 1920. This piece has a really interesting perspective, because Otto Dix actually fought alongside the Germans during World War I. According to a professor of art from the U.K., “after the war Germans struggled with their identity and were desperate to
restore their pride by redefining themselves as heroes” (Shafe, 2019), which led to them parading through the streets after the war. Dix saw that these men were “reliant on prosthetics, canes, and crutches, these veterans have become as mechanized as the war that claimed their flesh” (Shafe, 2019), but they still felt that the brutalization was justified, a position that Dix didn’t agree with. It’s because of this disagreement that Dix created a post-war art collection that symbolized his feelings towards the war, while making fun of the people fighting. This is shown by the men marching past a German shoe store, which is ironic and a little cruel, because the men walking past are missing their feet. They’re also shown to look foolish with disproportionate features. Furthermore, the contrast of the brightly colored sidewalk and shoe store compared to the mens’ dark uniforms could also symbolize the “darkness” that these men brought to the war. It’s also interesting to note that because the whole space has a different tone, the men seem like they don’t belong. Dix wanted to show that war isn’t something to be proud of and if anything, we should be humbled by it, not proud. Personally, I don’t find this piece aesthetically appealing, but I find the message behind it very effective.

Ultimately, the advance of technology during this time period added a lot of brutality to warfare, which effected millions of people. World War I brought forth a whole new era, which is apparent in the artwork that comes from the beginning, middle, and end of the war. The artwork shows the emotion behind society’s transformation as well as the dramatic change in styles.

Sources:

IWM. “Gassed.” Imperial War Museums, 2019, www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/23722.

McKever, Rosalind. “Carlo Carrà, Funeral of the Anarchist Galli.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2015, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/wwi-dada/art-great-war/a/carlo-carr-funeral-of-the-anarchist-galli.

Shafe, Dr. Laurence. “Art History Revealed.” 2019, www.shafe.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/p11-Aftermath-WWI-Art.pdf.

The Romantic Era refers to the numerous styles that evolved throughout the 1800’s to the mid-1900’s in Europe. It’s important to note that romanticism was only one part of the Romantic Era. Romanticism dominated the beginning of the century, moving on to realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. There was also the Art Nouveau style which was a completely different direction than the previously discussed classism, which focused on organic and geometric shapes to create mainly decorative pieces, but also paintings. Realism was intended to show the scene as it was, where the interpretation is mainly of subject matter rather than the image itself. On the other hand, impressionism allows for the viewer to decide for themselves what the scene is and means. The evolution from realism to impressionism is one of the most interesting comparatives, because the intention of the artists is different. Realism’s intention is to expose a truth to the viewer, while impressionism allows the viewer to define the truth as they see fit.

Romanticism became the main focus for the first half of the 1800’s, which was originally a literary movement before sparking interests in art that contained emphasis on individual’s emotions and imagination, stepping away from the classical subjects that supported “social norms”. Eventually romanticism evolved, making way for a new style called realism, which tried to capture the subject truthfully, without avoidance of “taboo” subjects. It still captures the individualistic emotion that romanticism brought to the Romantic Era. This is beautifully shown in the realistic paintings The Third of May, 1808 by Francisco Goya and Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault.

Francisco Goya’s The Third of May, 1808 was painted in Madrid, Spain in 1814. To give historical context, this was painted six years after Napoleon made a fake alliance with the king of Spain, Charles IV, in order to conquer Spain. He was to make his brother the new king of Spain. French troops came across the borders May 2nd, 1808 and when the Spaniards rebelled May 3rd, 1808, they began executing the Spaniards. According to Khan Academy, “their blood literally ran through the streets of Madrid” (Khan Academy, 2015). Naturally, since Goya was a Spaniard and lived in Madrid, it affected him deeply, which led him to paint The Third of May, 1808.

The painting shows a seemingly endless line of French troops executing Spaniards along a country hill. There are already men lying at their feet with their blood covering the ground. There are so many Spaniards waiting to be executed, that their heads disappear into the distance, towards the city. Many are covering their faces in anguish, there’s a monk praying, but one man stands out. He kneels with his arms spread, his eyebrows tightened with sadness instead of fear. According to Khan Academy, he “takes the placed of the crucified Christ; sacrificing himself for the good of his nation” (Khan Academy, 2015). His religious significance is also highlighted by the light of the lantern that illuminates his whole body, which could represent “spiritual light” (Khan Academy, 2015). It’s also interesting to point out the contrast of colors between the Spanish and the French, light vs dark, which represents good vs evil. This is supported by the fact that the Christ substitution and the monk praying, both seen as good, holy individuals, are seen in white clothing. On the other hand, the French are shown in dark blue to black clothing, perhaps signifying their sins by tricking King Charles IV and murdering the Spanish.

This painting can be considered part of the realism style, because of the way that Goya represents the Spanish with simple agony. He shows that the Spanish, regardless of occupation or status, were hurt by this event. The purpose of this painting was to show the truth behind a real event with little room for imagination by presenting the event with a clear protagonist and antagonist, which is what realistic painters are trying to capture. This painting makes me admire the strength of Goya to be able to experience a situation like this invasion and still be able to show the world the Spanish view of the Peninsular War with dignity.

Théodore Géricault’s Raft of the Medusa was painted in 1818 in Paris, France. It depicts the raft made from the wreckage of a French naval ship, the Medusa, which was made to hold the 150 troops that wouldn’t fit in the life boats. Once the captain realized the raft was slowing the life boats down, he had the line cut and left the men to die at sea. According to a video by Khan Academy, “there was starvation, murder, and…cannibalism” (Khan Academy, 2013) and only 15 of the men survived the 13 days at sea. This event happened just a few years before this painting was created and seems to be a political statement, because “the King’s representative, the captain, failed” (Khan Academy, 2013) so the artist is “making a political statement that is anti-monarchic” (Khan Academy, 2013).

Shown in the painting are many dead bodies lying on the raft, several men lying on top of one other, all reaching up towards the right corner of the painting, which creates a pyramid shape that often symbolizes hope. All of the emotion behind this painting shows desperation and despair. This is shown in the way the men at the top of the pyramid are waving flags, hoping someone will see them and rescue them. It shows the despair of the individuals along the outer edge of the raft, either gruesome, pale corpses or close to death. Not only does the emotion behind this painting follow the realism style, but the space that Géricault created. The very corner of the raft is leaned towards the viewer, like they “can step on it” (Khan Academy, 2013), which brings the viewer to the scene of the event. The viewer feels as if they’re in the painting and feeling the subjects’ despair. That is why I appreciate this painting most of all, because of the incredible emotion that Géricault is able to portray while presenting a historical event.

By the 1900’s, impressionism was originating out of France. This style was a re-creation of scenes, mainly personal to the artist, that was imaginative while also allowing the viewer to feel empathy towards the subject or even feel like they’re in the scene themselves. This is shown in Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear by Vincent Van Gogh and Cliff Walk at Pourville by Claude Monet.

Vincent Van Gogh’s Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear was painted in 1889 at his yellow house in Arles, France. It was a place that he rented with a colleague named Paul Gaugin, a fellow artist that he fought with regularly. It was during a fight with Gaugin that Van Gogh, who had a history of mental episodes, severed his ear with a knife. It’s not completely known what led to this event or exactly how it happened as there are conflicting reports, but it is known that he delivered his ear to a brothel that Gaugin and Van Gogh regularly visited (Khan Academy, 2014). After which, the authorities found Van Gogh in grave condition since he had cut his artery in the process and brought him to a hospital in Paris. He and Gaugin separated permanently after this altercation. It was after he returned from the hospital that Van Gogh painted this self-portrait (Khan Academy, 2015).

The painting shows a three-quarter view of Van Gogh with a fur cap and a coat on. His head is bandaged, there’s a painting behind him, an easel behind him, and a window frame. The fact that he shows his right ear bandaged in the painting when it was his left ear that was severed shows that he created a mirror-image of himself. It’s very simplistic, but interesting because of his brushstrokes. Many aspects of this painting are personal to the artist, so a viewer with little knowledge on the artist wouldn’t understand the subtle clues. Such as the Japanese painting hanging behind him was included because “first glimpses into the art of Japan came at a pivotal moment in the artist’s career” (Khan Academy, 2015) and it was only after this moment that he transformed his style to follow “the colorful urbanity of the impressionists” (Khan Academy, 2015). He did this by included bright colors such as his yellow house, red hair, and using less dark tones than his earlier paintings. Also the fact that the inspiration behind it is still being debated, shows how Van Gogh followed other impressionists footsteps. Although I don’t find this particular piece aesthetically pleasing, because of the seriousness in Van Gogh’s portrait, but I appreciate the personal significance behind it. However, without the knowing the significance, I probably wouldn’t give the painting deeper insight.

Claude Monet’s Cliff Walk at Pourville was painted after he had a transcendent moment on a cliffside after the death of his wife in Pourville, France. Eventually he brought his girlfriend and her daughters back to the cliff. They’re said to be the women shown in the painting, but it’s not certain.

What’s most important about this painting is how it draws the viewers into the space. With the disappearing line of the horizon, the flow of the waves and grass that signify wind, and the pleasantness of the colors allow the viewer to be “part of the modern world that he lived in” (Khan Academy, 2012). Furthermore, the contrast of the dark shadow of the cliff really shows how bright the sun is pointing down on those girls, which brings the viewer into the space as well, because it’s like they can feel what the girls are feeling in that moment. That is what impressionism is about: allowing the viewer to create their own space within the artist’s rendition of a private scene that’s known only to them. I do find this painting aesthetically pleasing because of the flow of the wind and the colors used, but it does leave a sense of mystery surrounding the women pictured.

It’s because of the clear imagery that realism presents that makes me prefer the realistic style over the impressionism that is closely follows. It feels like a powerful statement that the artist wants to make clear and is able to do so by creating such emotion with subjects that stand out with the elements that the realistic artists use, like the space that allows the viewer to be apart of the historical event, no matter how tragic it is. Although it is fascinating that impressionists are able to initiate the viewers’ imaginations, some events are too important to leave up to the imagination.

Sources:

Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. “Monet, Cliff Walk at Pourville.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2012, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/avant-garde-france/impressionism/v/claude-monet-cliff-walk-at-pourville-1882.

Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. “Géricault, Raft of the Medusa.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2013, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-france/v/g-ricault-raft-of-the-medusa-1818-19.

Pollitt, Ben. “Van Gogh, Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2014, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/avant-garde-france/post-impressionism/a/van-gogh-self-portrait-with-bandaged-ear.

Zappella, Christine. “Goya, Third of May, 1808.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2015, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/romanticism/romanticism-in-spain/a/goya-third-of-may-1808.

Classical art is difficult to define because of the countless influences during this time period: mid-1700’s to the 1900’s. For example, there was the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the discovery of Pompeii, etc. Therefore, I decided to choose a topic that was spread across many paintings, regardless of the influences: mortality. These pieces show mortality in many different ways, as both a dark, inevitable end and something that should be accepted and comforting.

Firstly, the painting Oath of the Horatii by Jaques-Louis David in 1785 is a detailed oil piece from Rome, Italy. It was royally commissioned by King Louis XVI of France, who allowed David to live at the Louvre in Paris. Although it currently resides at the Louvre, it was painted in Rome. It depicts three brothers, the Horatii, pledging themselves to fight for Rome by saluting three swords held up by their father. The story behind the scene is that instead of the Romans fighting a full-scale war against the enemy, the Albans, “they elect representative combatants to settle their dispute” (Khan Academy, 2015). The last ones standing, win the war. The Albans also elected three brothers, the Curatii, which brings us to the women seated in the far right of the painting. All these women are grieving, because they are connected to both sides of the battle by marriage. Therefore, regardless of the outcome, one side would be losing their husbands and sons. What makes the meaning behind this painting so powerful is that it shows the mortality of this battle without favoritism. Meaning, traditionally there’s a “winner” of the war that celebrates the death of their enemy, but in this painting, there is no winner. Death is still painful and full of emotion, which is shown in the women’s faces and positioning as they grieve the inevitable.

There’s some interesting artistic elements to note as well. Such as David’s use of the archways in the background to present the scene as a sort of stage, drawing the viewers eye directly to the brothers. Furthermore, the Horatii brothers’ form suggest that they are confident in their decision to pledge their lives, because their standing open-faced and literally reaching for the swords they’ll use to fight for their people. It’s interesting to note that even though the brothers seem to have accepted their mortality, it still hurts their families at home.

Secondly, this piece is by Francisco de Goya in 1810 is called And there’s nothing to be done. It’s different than the other pieces that I’ve mentioned, because he etched a copper plate using acid first to get his main shapes and then used a sharp stylus to carve lines. He would then fill the lines with ink and wipe away the excess, so he’s left with ink caught only in the ridges that he’s made. He then placed paper on top of the plate, making a print (Khan Academy, 2015). However, because the ridges are compressed each time a copy is made, the ridges are smoothed over time. Therefore, the earlier prints are more accurate of Goya’s work (Khan Academy, 2015).

This specific piece is part of a series of prints called the Disasters of War that Goya created to protest the French occupation of Spain at the time, specifically “the horrors of the Peninsular War” (Khan Academy, 2015). It shows a man blindfolded and tied to a post, obviously weak, but his clothes are bright enough to make him the center of this piece. Another man sprawled at his feet, his body twisted from a brutal death. In the background, there’s soldiers executing two more men in a possibly endless line of men tied to posts. The line is shown by the curve of the men that are tied up that goes on until it disappears behind the darkness of the sky. This piece shows mortality as a bitter aspect of life that can be controlled by unjust influences, like invasions of homelands and abuse of power in the war zone. It also highlights the inevitability of death, because the center man is obviously waiting in line to be the next one executed.

Lastly, the painting The Garden of Death by Hugo Simberg in 1904 is a fresco in the Tampere Cathedral in Finland. It shows three skeletons in long, black robes tending to a garden. One is mindlessly walking to the left while watering flowers, one is behind a counter in the back hugging blue flowers, and the last one is even further back with it’s back to the viewer. The artist described it as “a purgatory of sorts for souls waiting for entrance into Heaven” (Bertman, 2007) and the “souls” are represented as the flowers that “Death” is tending to.

One aspect to note is the depth that Simberg creates in the painting by having the skeletons spread out through the garden. Also, the fact that all three are in different positions could suggest some sort of process that one goes through when accepting mortality or even the process of death itself. Furthermore, the fact that none of the flowers are realistic or “worldly” suggests that they’re tending a garden in another plane of life. All of the flowers seem unrealistic, but so is the painting as a whole. The juxtaposition between flowers, a symbol of life and growth, and skeletons, a symbol of death, allows the viewer to “consider the afterlife, to take comfort in his or her own passing” (Bertman, 2007). We know this because this is one of the few paintings by Hugo Simberg that he actually explained the symbolism behind the piece.

Together, these pieces show that mortality can symbolize many different means to an end, but it’s inevitability suggests that we should flourish in life while we can and accept that it will come to an end.

Sources:

Bertman, Sandra. “The Garden of Death.” The Garden of Death, NYU, 2007, medhum.med.nyu.edu/view/12706.

McCoy , Claire. “David, Oath of the Horatii.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2015, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/later-europe-and-americas/enlightenment-revolution/a/david-oath-of-the-horatii.

Zappella, Christine. “Goya, And There’s Nothing to Be Done (from the Disasters of War).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2015, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/later-europe-and-americas/enlightenment-revolution/a/goya-disasters-of-war.

The oil painting by Rembrandt in 1642 is commonly referred to as The Night Watch, but the darkness of the setting is actually due to the varnish aging over time. The actual title of the painting is Officers and Men of the Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq and Lieutenant Wilhelm van Ruytenburgh, according to an article by Khan Academy. It was mainly commissioned by the city of Amsterdam to honor a company of civic guardsmen. They were considered “defenders of their cities” (Khan Academy, 2014) and were responsible for “guarding gates, policing streets, putting out fires, and generally maintaining order throughout the city” (Khan Academy, 2014). Each company had a guild hall that they were able to decorate with portraits of the most distinguished men, which is what this painting was commissioned for. It hung in the guild’s hall until 1715 when it moved to the city’s Town Hall where it received it’s misleading title, and then it was finally moved to a museum.

The painting is incredibly large, so the figures are life-size. The centerpiece of this painting is the conversation between Captain Frans Banning Cocq (left) and his lieutenant Wilhelm van Ruytenburgh (right). Their military ranks are shown through slight symbols like the steel gorget around the lieutenant’s neck and the baton in the hand of the commander. Similar symbols are used to show the ranking of the other 18 portraits of company members, like the muskets or spears. All of whom paid to be included in the portrait. In fact, all 18 names were inscribed in the shield to the right of the archway. What’s interesting is that Rembrandt chose to include the less important members as well, like the drummer on the far right with the dog at his feet, bringing the total amount of figures to around 26. The scene comes from Rembrandt’s imagination, but it feels as if an important event is about to happen. There’s a sense of commotion, because the placement of the figures make it seem as if they’re preparing to defend their city gates, which is what the archway in the back represents. Overall, the purpose of these portraits was to instill a sense of patriotism in the viewers.

The Thirty Year War was still going on when this painting was created. In fact, Spain occupied half of the Netherlands during this time. The Spaniards were trying to impose Catholicism on the Dutch (who were mainly Protestant). The commander centered in this painting was important for the defense of the city (Khan Academy, 2014). Therefore, the sense of urgency that Rembrandt incorporated in to the painting could be intentional, because the country was at a state of distress and the men in this painting were the ones defending it. Perhaps the reason why the figures are life-size is because Rembrandt wanted the viewers to understand that these are real people, not just figures in a painting.

Rembrandt was already in the height of his career when this painting was created, which could attribute to it’s immediate success. However, the fact that his use of tenebrism and chiaroscuro was applied to a military portrait is what makes this piece stand out from the others in the Baroque period. The tenebrism is shown in the illumination of key figures. Obviously, the commander and the lieutenant are key figures which is why they are slightly illuminated: to stand out from the others. Another figure that stands out is the “golden girl” that’s positioned to the left of the commander. What identifies her is the chicken dangling at her side that hangs from it’s feet, specifically the birds claws. This is a direct reference to the company, because the emblem for this particular guild, the Kloveniers, is golden claws (Khan Academy, 2014). Therefore, her presence represents the personification of the company. The fact that she is illuminated makes her stand out in front of the other characters. The chiaroscuro is shown in the deep shadows behind the illuminated characters that makes the scene feel like there’s so much more depth to it than meets the eye. Without the shadows, the characters would seem like they’re stacked on top of each other rather than behind each other in a large space. By adding these shadows, Rembrandt enlarges the situation. It stood out from the other portraits, because other artists mainly did posed portraits rather than the company in action. The commotion, depth, and subject matter behind this painting is why it’s my favorite from this time period. I would definitely own a copy of it, if it were smaller.

Source: Schaller, D. (2014). Rembrandt, The Night Watch. Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/holland/a/rembrandt-the-night-watch

The Italian Renaissance is known as the rebirth of Greek and Roman ideals from the 14th century to the 17th century, but it also had an effect on how artists depicted characters and the invention of artistic elements such as linear perspective and the vanishing point. Artists such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, etc. began exploring the human anatomy and depicting divine characters with realistic human characteristics, also known as humanism. This is evident in Masaccio’s fresco painting Holy Trinity, which was one of his last paintings after years of perfecting his work in Florence, Italy. This fresco was painted on the wall of the Santa Maria Novella church in Florence, Italy in 1424, according to an article by Khan Academy. It’s not known who commissioned the painting, but it’s common for the donors to be depicted in the painting as well during this time period.

Masaccio’s Holy Trinity consists of God in the very back, a dove above Christ’s head that represents the Holy Ghost, Christ himself on the cross (completing the Holy Trinity), the Virgin Mary on Christ’s left, St. John on Christ’s right, two donors that commissioned the painting standing on either side of the alter, and a skeleton laying on an open tomb at the very bottom.

This painting is famous for being the first use of linear perspective outside of the inventor himself, Brunelleschi. The use of Roman architecture such as the coffers (indented squares on the ceiling) and columns create a vanishing point at the bottom of the cross, because of the lines that begin to diagonally recede into the distance. Since the vanishing point is at Christ’s feet, it allows the viewer to feel as if their at the bottom of a real alter staring up at Christ, which is what Masaccio intended.

Besides the use of linear perspective, what makes this painting different from medieval art? The renaissance is known for taking images of Gods and Goddesses and presenting them as humans. In this depiction of Christ, Masaccio presents him as a real human would look after being hung on a cross. It shows Christ bleeding, his abdomen hollow from hunger, his ribs showing, and his muscles pulling down from gravity, which is much different from the “holy” paintings of Christ before this period. This creates a sense of sympathy in the viewers, because you can clearly see the torture that Christ is going through. Furthermore, you can actually see God’s foot touching the floor behind Christ, meaning that Masaccio also depicted God himself as a man. The Virgin Mary is gesturing up at Christ with a mournful expression that creates even more emotion in this piece, because their human characteristics makes this scene feel more real. The act of focusing on human needs rather than the divine is why this painting is considered part of the humanism movement.

Lastly, the opened tomb. The latin inscription above the sarcophagus reads “As I am now, so shall you be. As you are now, so once was I.” This skeleton acts as a reminder that death is inevitable and since this painting acts as a devotional image rather than an allegory, it’s reaching out to the viewers to secure their salvation through Christ before it’s too late.

It’s because of the human characteristics that I’m drawn to this painting. Since I was raised in a religious family, the Holy Trinity was always presented as something untouchable and unbreakable. Masaccio was able to capture the actual pain that went behind Christ’s sacrifice, making his actions and purpose seem life-like. Therefore, I would love to own a copy (a smaller one preferably).

Sources:

Zucker, Steven, and Beth Harris. “Masaccio, Holy Trinity.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2012, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/painting-in-florence/a/masaccio-holy-trinity.

Zucker, Steven, and Beth Harris. “Masaccio, Holy Trinity.” Smarthistory, 9 Aug. 2015, smarthistory.org/masaccio-holy-trinity/.

The marble statue Winged Victory is a depiction of Nike, the greek goddess of victory. The statue was found on an island called Samothrace in the north of the Aegean Sea in a temple environment and is believed to have been built by the Greeks during the second century, B.C.E., according to an article by Khan Academy. The temple that she was found in was a sanctuary for worshiping the Greek gods, which received many donations, such as the Winged Victory, according to the description by the Louvre Museum, where the statue currently resides. She’s positioned to be displayed on the prow of a ship, but was never on an actual ship. There was a symbolic stone ship in the temple where she was found that overlooked the water, which made the fabric that’s carved seem like it’s actually blowing in the wind (Khan Academy, 2012). Therefore, this is a very powerful piece, because it instills a sense of victory and strength in the viewers.

The statue’s positioning and movements of the fabric is what makes it such an emotional piece. She’s positioned with her feet braced, like she’s ready for an attack, but her torso is still upright and almost moving forward. Also, because of the fabric that flows backwards, it shows that she’s facing the oncoming storm. This combination makes her seem strong enough to stand her ground, while also moving for the next attack. Furthermore, the fabric is shown to wrap around her torso, breasts, and legs in a way that still accents her features as a woman, which makes it a feminist piece as well. Last but not least, the wings. Nike is depicted with wings, because she is said to fly down from Olympus when needed and “would fly with great speed around the battle fields rewarding worth victors with glory and fame” (Richman, 2018). Therefore, her wings bracing the wind coming from the sea is an even more important symbol of her strength on the battlefield.

Ultimately, Winged Victory presents itself as a victorious, female entity that can withstand the brutality of conflict, social or otherwise. I love this piece and would definitely want a copy of it, because of the strength that this statue projects. I visited the statue at the Louvre and it was one of the first pieces you see, because she’s at the top of a massive staircase. It has an aura that can’t be ignored, which is what I strive to have.

Sources:

Dégremont, Cécile. “Winged Victory of Samothrace.” A Closer Look at the Victory of Samothrace | Musée Du Louvre, 2008, musee.louvre.fr/oal/victoiredesamothrace/victoiredesamothrace_acc_en.html.

Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker. “Winged Victory (Nike) of Samothrace.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, 2012, http://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/ancient-mediterranean-ap/greece-etruria-rome/v/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace-c-190-b-c-e.

Richman-Abdou , Kelly. “This Armless Sculpture Is One of the Louvre’s Most Treasured Masterpieces.” My Modern Met, 23 Nov. 2018, mymodernmet.com/winged-victory-of-samothrace/.

My name is Emma. I was born and raised in Fairbanks, Alaska. I enjoy the simple things in life like quality time with friends, snuggling with my pets, and just living day-to-day. I’m majoring in foreign languages, because I studied abroad at a young age and learned the importance of other cultures. I’m also minoring in art, because I’ve always loved to draw and paint. I’m more than halfway finished with my bachelors and then I’m going to get my masters in secondary education so I can teach foreign languages or English as a second language in foreign countries.

My specific styles of art that I’ve focused on is acrylic painting, drawing with pencil or charcoal, ceramics, etc. Honestly I haven’t found a type of art that I didn’t enjoy. I love going to art museums and have visited many famous pieces during my travels. It wasn’t until I started college that I began studying art history and learning about the specifics of the pieces I saw. It made me want to learn and see even more.

The painting above is called “Liberty Leading the People” by Eugene Delacroix. It’s one of my favorite paintings. Not only because of historical content behind it (French revolution, specifically the battle where the king is captured if I’m remembering correctly), but the combination of classes that are rising up against this unjust system. This is seen through the poor and wealthy classes binding together to form this pyramid shape like they’re physically rising above the government. There’s so much action and emotion that just really resonates with me.